By Z.H. Fu

### Poisson Process

counting process independent increments: if the numbers of events that occur in disjoint time intervals are independent. $P(N(s+t)-N(s)|N(s))=P(N(s+t)-N(s))$,$P(X_i|X_j)=P(X_i)$

counting process stationary increments: if the distribution of the number of events that occur in any interval of time depends only on the length of the time interval.

#### Define 1

The counting process $\{N(t), t\ge 0\}$ is said to be a Poisson process having rate $\lambda, \lambda > 0$, if

1. $N(0)= 0$;
2. The process has independent increments;
3. The number of events in any interval of length $t$ is Poisson distributed with mean $\lambda t$ Thatis,for all $s,t\ge0$, $P\{N(t+s)- N(s)=n\}= e^{-\lambda t}\frac{(\lambda t)^n}{n!}, \ \ n=0,1,\cdots$ From (iii), we have: $E[N(t)] = \lambda t$

#### Define 2

1. $N(0)= 0$
2. The process has stationary and independent increments.
3. $P{N(h) = 1} = h + o(h)$
4. $P\{N(h) > 2\} = o(h)$

#### Interarrival

$X_n$denote the time between the $(n- 1)$st and the $n$th event. $P\{X_1>t\}=P\{N(t) =0\}=e^{-\lambda t}$, $P\{X_2>t|X_1=s\}=e^{-\lambda t}$. $X_i$ i.i.d, mean=$1/\lambda$ r.v. $S_n$ is the arrival time of the $n$th event, $S_n=\sum_{i=1}^nX_i,n\ge1$. $S_n$ has a gamma distribution with parameters $n$ and $\lambda$,$P\{S_n\le t \} =P\{ N( t ) \ge n\}=\sum_{j=n}^\infty e^{-\lambda t}\frac{(\lambda t)^j}{j!} \Rightarrow f(t)=$ $\lambda e^{-\lambda t}\frac{(\lambda t)^{n-1}}{(n-1)!},t\ge0$

#### Conditional Distribution of the Arrival Times

Known at $t$, one event happen, give the distribution of the time that the event happen. It’s uniform dist.$P\{X_1<s|N(t) = 1\}=s/t$ Generalization: Given that $N(t) = n$, the $n$ arrival times $S_1,...,S_n$, have the same distribution as the order statistics corresponding to n independent random variables uniformly distributed on the interval $(0,t)$ $f(t_1,...,t_n)=P\{t_i\le S_i \le t_i+h,i=1,...,n|N(t)=n\}/(h_1h_2\cdots h_n)=n!/t^n$

#### Nonhomogeneous

1. $N(0) = 0$
2. $\{N(t),t \ge 0\}$ has independent increments
3. $P\{N(t +h) - N(t) \ge 2\}= o(h)$
4. $P\{N(t+h)- N(t)=1\}=\lambda(t)h+o(h)$ let $m(t)=\int_0^t\lambda(s)ds$, we have $P\{N(t+s)-N(t)=n\}=$ $\exp\{-(m(t+s)-m(t))\}[m(t+s)-m(t)]^n/n!$. The form is substitute $\lambda t$ with $m(t+s)-m(t)$. We can think of the non-homo­geneous process as being a random sample from a homogeneous Poi sson process with probability $\frac{\lambda(t)}{\lambda}$.

#### Compound Poisson Random Variables

$W=\sum_{i=1}^NX_i,N\sim poisson(\lambda)$, generating function of $W$ is $E[e^{tW}]=$ $\sum_{n=0}^\infty E[e^{tW}|N=n]P\{N=n\}=$ $\exp\{\lambda(\phi_X(t)-1)\},\phi_X(t)=$ $E[e^{tX_i}]$ $E[W]=\lambda E[X],Var(W)=\lambda E[X^2]$ property: $E[Wh(W)]=\lambda E[Xh(W+X)]$, we can get: $E[W]=\lambda E[X],E[W^2]=$ $\lambda E[X^2]+\lambda^2(E[X])^2,E[W^3]=$ $\lambda E[X^3]+3\lambda ^2E[X]E[X^2]+\lambda^3(E[X])^3$

### Markov Chains

$P_{ij}$ from $i$ to $j$. $\sum_{j=0}^\infty P_{ij}=1$

#### Chapman-Kolmogorov Equations

$P_{ij}^n=P\{X_{n+m}=j|X_m=i\}, n\ge 0, i,j \ge 0$. We have $P_{ij}^{n+m}=$ $\sum_{k=0}^\infty P_{ik}^nP_{kj}^m$ in matrix form $P^{(n+m)}=P^{(n)}P^{(m)}$. Proof: $P_{ij}^{n+m}=$ $P\{X_{n+m}=j|X_0=i\}$ $=\sum_{k=0}^\infty P\{X_{n+m}=j,X_n=k|X_0=i\}$ $=\sum_{k=0}^\infty P\{X_{n+m}=j|X_n=k,X_0=i\}P\{X_{n}=k|X_0=i\}$ $=...$

accessible : $j$ is accessible from state $i$ if $\exists n\ge 0, s.t. P_{ij}^n>0$.

communicate: states $i$ and $j$ accessible to each other. (i)$i \leftrightarrow i$; (ii)$if i \leftrightarrow j, then j \leftrightarrow i$; (iii) $if i \leftrightarrow j and j \leftrightarrow k, then i \leftrightarrow k$(Proof: $P_{ij}^{n+m}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty P_{ik}^nP_{kj}^m$ $\ge P_{ij}^nP_{jk}^m>0$).

class : Two states that communicate are said to be in the same class.

irreducible : if there is only one class in a markov chain.

period: State $i$ is said to have period $d$ if $P_{ii}^n=0$ when ever $n$ is not divisible by $d$ and $d$ is the greatest integer with this property. If $i \leftrightarrow j$, then $d(i)=d(j)$. Perid is a class property.

aperiodic: A state with period 1 is said to be aperiodic.

first passage time:$f_{ij}^n$ to be the probability that, starting in $i$, the first transition into $j$ occurs at time $n$. $f_{ij}=\sum_{n=1}^\infty f_{ij}^n$.

In recursive form: $f_{ij}^n=\sum_{k\ne j}p_{ik}f_{kj}^{(n-1)}$.

If $\sum_{n=1}^\infty f_{ij}^{(n)}<1$, means there exists probability that start from $i$ and never arrive at $j$. Denote the expected first passage time from $i$ to $j$ as $\mu_{ij}=$ $\infty (if \sum_{n=1}^\infty f_{ij}^{(n)}<1);$ $=\sum_{n=1}^\infty nf_{ij}^{(n)}(if \sum_{n=1}^\infty f_{ij}^{(n)}=1)$

recursive form: $\mu_{ij}=1+\sum_{k\ne j}p_{ik}\mu_{kj}$

recurrent: $f_{jj}=1$,

transient otherwise. $j$ is recurrent iff $\sum_{n=1}^\infty P_{jj}^n=\infty$. recurrent implies that the visit time to the node is infinity: $E[\text{number of visit to j}|X_0=j]=\infty$. In a finite-state Markov chain not all states can be transient. If $i \leftrightarrow j$ and $i$ is recurrent, then j is recurrent. Same with transient.

If $i \leftrightarrow j$ and $j$ is recurrent, then $f_{ij}=1$.

transient: iff there exists a state $j ( j \ne i)$ that is accessible from state $i$ but not vice versa, that is, state $i$ is not accessible from state $j$.

upon entering this state, the process might never return to this state again. Transient is a class property.

recurrent: not transient. is a class property.

absorbing state: A state that is never left once the process enters that state.

#### Limit Theorems

$\mu_{jj}$ denote the expected number of transitions needed to return to state j. $\mu_{jj}=\infty (\text{j is transient});$ $=\sum_{n=1}^\infty nf_{jj}^n (\text{j is recurrent})$ $\pi_j=\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty}P_{jj}^{nd(j)}$ $\mu_{ii}=1/\pi_i$ if $i$ and $j$ communicate, then

1. $P\{\lim_{t\rightarrow \infty}N_j(t)/t=1/\mu_{jj}|X_0=i\}=1$ (ii)$\lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}\sum_{k=1}^nP_{ij}^k/n=1/\mu_{jj}$
2. If $j$ is aperiodic, then $\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty}P_{ij}^n=1/\mu_{jj}$
3. If $j$ has period d, then $\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty}P_{ij}^{nd}=d/\mu_{jj}$

positive recurrent : $\mu_{jj}<\infty$. Is a class property. $\pi_j>0$

null recurrent :$\mu_{jj}=\infty$. Is a class property.$\pi_j=0$

ergodic: positive recurrent states that are aperiodic are called ergodic states.

stationary: A probability distribution $\{P_j, j \ge 0\}$ is said to be stationary for the Markov chain if $P_j=\sum_{i=0}^\infty P_iP_{ij},j\ge 0$. If the initial probability distribution is the stationary distribution, then $X_n$ will have the same distribution for all $n$.

### Continuous Time Markov Chains

Markovian property

1. indepent of previous states： $P\{X(t+s)=j|X(s)=i,X(r)=x(r)\}=P\{X(t+s)=j|X(s)=i\}$ $\forall r<s,t>0$

2. Independent of initial time $P\{X(t+s)=j|X(s)=i\}=P\{X(t)=j|X(0)=i\}$ If, $P{ X( t + s ) = j | X( s) = i}$ is independent of $s$, then the continuous-time Markov chain is said to have stationary or homogeneous transition probabilities.

transition probability function $p_{ij}(t)=P\{X(t)=j|X(0)=i\}$, $\lim_{t\rightarrow 0}p_{ij}(t)=1(i=j);=0(i\ne j)$

Time staying at some state By Markovian, $P{T_i>t+s|T_i>s}=P{T_i>t}$ $\Rightarrow P\{T_i\le t\}=1-e^{-q_it}$, $q_i=1/E[T_i]$ is leaving times in unit time，denote $q_{ij}$ the times leaving i and enter j，we have $q_i=\sum_{j\ne i}q_{ij}$.

Chapman-Kolmogorov $p_{ij}(t)=\sum_{k=0}^M p_{ik}(s)p_{kj}(t-s)$

stead state $\lim_{t\rightarrow\infty}p_{ij}(t)=\pi_j$, $\pi_j=\sum_{k=0}^M\pi_ip_{ij}(t)$,Usually use a more easy equations：$\pi_jq_j=\sum_{i\ne j}\pi_i q_{ij},\sum_{j=0}^M\pi_j=1$

### Martingales

Martingales: $\{Z_n,n\ge1\}$ is a martingale if $E[|Z_n|]<\infty,\forall n$ and $E[Z_{n+1}|Z_1,Z_2,\cdots,Z_n]=Z_n$.

take expectation get: $E[Z_{n+1}]=E[Z_n]$ then $E[Z_n]=E[Z_1],\forall n$

Conditional Expectation: $E(aY_1+bY_2|F_n)=aE(Y_1|F_n)+bE(Y_2|F_n)$； If $Y$ is the function about $X_1,\ldots,X_n$，then $E[Y|F_n]=Y$；if $Y$ is an arbitary r.v. ，$Z$ is a measurable r.v. about $X_1,\ldots,X_n$，then $E[YZ|F_n]=ZE[Y|F_n]$

0 mean independent r.v. sum is martingale: $X_i$ is independent r.v. with 0 mean; $Z_n=\sum_{i=1}^nX_i$ is a martingale. Since $E[Z_{n+1}|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]$ $=E[Z_n+X_{n+1}|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]$ $=E[Z_n|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]+E[X_{n+1}|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]$ $=Z_n+E[X_{n+1}]=Z_n$，note: $Z_n=E[Z_n|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n],\because Z_n$ is given

1 mean independent r.v. product is martingale: $X_i$ is independent r.v. with 1 mean; $Z_n=\prod_{i=1}^nX_i$ is a martingale. Since $E[Z_{n+1}|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]$ $=E[Z_nX_{n+1}|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]$ $=Z_nE[X_{n+1}|Z_1,\cdots,Z_n]$ $=Z_nE[X_{n+1}]=Z_n$

### Queueing Theory

Distribution of interarrival times/Distribution of service times/Number of servers Example: M/M/s，M/G/1。M=exponential distribution (Markovian)；D=degenerate distribution (constant times)；$E_k$=Erlang distribution (shape parameter k)；G=general distribution (any arbitrary distribution allowed)

### Stochastic Process Models

#### M/G/1 Queue

Interarrival times is exponential. let $X_n$ denote the number of customers left behind by the $n$th depar­ture. Also, let $Y_n$ denote the number of customers arriving during the service period of the $(n + 1)$st customer. We have $X_{n+1}=X_n-1+Y_n (X_n > 0);=Y_n (X_n=0)$. $P\{Y_n=j\}=\int_0^\infty e^{-\lambda x}(\lambda x)^j/j!dG(x)$. $\Rightarrow$ $P_{0j}=\int_0^\infty e^{-\lambda x}(\lambda x)^j/j!dG(x)$. $P_{ij}=\int_0^\infty e^{-\lambda x}(\lambda x)^{j-i+1}/(j-i+1)!dG(x)$,$(j\ge i-1, i\ge 1)$, $P_{ij}=0$(otherwise).

#### G/M/1 Queue

Let $X_n$ denote the number of customers in the system as seen by the $n$th arrival. $P_{i,i+1-j}=\int_0^\infty e^{-\mu t}(\mu t)^j/j!dG(x)$, $j=0,\cdots,i$. $P_{i0}=\int_0^\infty \sum_{k=i+1}^\infty e^{-\mu t}(\mu t)^k/k!dG(x), i\ge 0$

#### Gambler’s Ruin Problem

$p_{0,0}=p_{N,N}=1,p_{i,i+1}=p=1-p_{i,i-1}$ Solution: Let $f_i$ denote the probability that starting with i, the fortune will eventually reach N. We obtain: $f_i=pf_{i+1}+qf_{i-1}$ $\Rightarrow f_{i+1}-f_i=q/p(f_i-f_{i-1}),\ldots, f_N-f_{N-1}=(q/p)^{N-1}f_1$ $\Rightarrow f_i-f_1=f_1[q/p+(q/p)^2+\cdots+(q/p)^{i-1}]$ $\Rightarrow f_i=(1-(q/p)^i)/(1-(q/p)^N),if p\ne 1/2;=i/N elif p=1/2$. The probability of stop at 0 is $1-f_i$

#### Alarm Clock Problem

n clock are exponential distributed with parameters : $b_1,\ldots,b_n$$P(T_i>t)=\exp(-b_i t)$. R.v. $T=\min\{T_1,\ldots,T_n\}$ $P(T\ge t)=P(T_1\ge t)P(T_2\ge t)\cdots P(T_n\ge t)=\exp(-(b_1+\cdots+b_n)t)$

Probability that $T_1$ ring first ：$P(T_1=T)=\int_0^\infty P(T_2>t,\cdots,T_n>t)P(T_1=t)dt$ $=\int_0^\infty \exp(-(b_2+\cdots+b_n)t)b_1\exp(-b_1 t)dt=b_1/(b_1+\cdots+b_n)$

#### Absolute Value of Simple Random Walk

$S_n=\sum_1^nX_n$, $P\{X_i =1\}=p$, $P\{X_i =-1\}=1-p=q$. Let $j=\max\{k:0\le k\le n,i_k=0\}$, $\therefore P\{S_n=i||S_n|=i,\cdots,|S_1|=i_1\}=$ $P\{S_n=i||S_n|=i,\cdots,|S_j|=0\}$, $\therefore P(S_n=i|...)=p^{(n-j)/2+i/2}q^{(n-j)/2-i/2}$ $\therefore P(S_n=-i|...)=p^{(n-j)/2-i/2}q^{(n-j)/2+i/2}$ $P(S_n=i|...)=P(S_n=i|...)/(P(S_n=i|...)+P(S_n=-i|...))$ $=p^i/(p^i+q^i)$ $\therefore P\{|S_{n+1}|=i+1||S_n|=i,|S_{n-1},\cdots,|S_1|\}$ $=P\{S_{n+1}=i+1|S_n=i\}p^i/(p^i+q^i)$ $+P\{S_{n+1}=-(i+1)|S_n=-i\}q^i/(p^i+q^i)$ $=(p^{i+1}+q^{i+1})/(p^i+q^i)$ $\therefore P_{i,i+1}=(p^{i+1}+q^{i+1})/(p^i+q^i)$ $=1-P_{i,i-1},i>0$ $P_{01}=1$

#### Simple Random Walk

$P_{i,i+1}=p=1-P_{i,i-1}$. Firstly, step number cannot be even, i.e. $P_{00}^{2n+1}=0$. $P_{00}^{2n}=\binom{2n}{n}p^n(1-p)^n$ $=\frac{(2n)!}{n!n!}(p(1-p))^n$. By Stirling, $P_{00}^{2n}\sim (4p(1-p))^n/\sqrt{\pi n}$.  if $\sum_{n=1}^\infty (4p(1-p))^n/\sqrt{\pi n}=\infty$ (only when $p=1/2$) it will be recurrent. otherwise transient.